|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
This report was prepared by |
|
|
|
|
|
1. Country overview 1.1 Geography and administrative units1.2 Socio-economic features1.3 Climate1. > top |
|
|
|
1.1 Geography and administrative units Romania is situated in the south-eastern part of Central Europe at its contact with Oriental Europe and Balcanic Europe, inside and outside of the Carpathian mountains. It lies between 43037’07”and 48015’06” N latitude and 20015’44” and 29041’24”E longitude, being placed at the crossing of the parallel 460N with the meridian 250E. Within the present day boundaries, established after the last two world wars, Romania has an area of 238 391 sq. km that ranks it as a medium sized European country. It has a circle-like shape: the distances between its extreme points are of 525 Km on the north – south direction and of 740 Km on the west - east one. It borders Bulgaria on the south, Yugoslavia on the south-west, Hungary on the west, Ukraine on the north, the north-east and the southern part of the east, Moldavia on the east, and the Black Sea on the south-east. From the administrative point of view Romania is divided into 41 judete (counties), to which the Bucharest Municipality, the capital of the country and the seat of the government, is added. The powers of the government and those allowed to counties are stated in the in the Romanian Constitution of 1992. Republic Head of State - President of Republic – elected every four years. Present President: Ion Iliescu (since 2000) Legislature: “Parliament”, composed of two chambers: Senate and Chamber of Deputies. Elections are normally held every four years, but possibly anytime the President calls elections dissolving the legislature. Official language: Romanian; also Hungarian, German, Romani and other languages are spoken by the national minorities. Maps: [1.1.1: Outline Map] [1.1.2: Romania Political Map] [1.1.3: Administrative Map] Tables: [1.1.1: Administrative units]
1.1 > 1. 1.2 Socio-economic features According to the Romanian Statistical Yearbook 2000, the income per capita (1999) is 1 554 USA $ (calculated on an exchange rate of 6 153 USA $ per 1 Romaian Leu (as calculated on the basis of the purchasing power parity). The Gross Domestic Product (in 1999) was of 39 USA $ bill.s estimated according to the exchange rate, or 135.7 USA $ bill.s estimated on the basis of the purchasing power parity. In the 1990-1999 period per capitum growth rate of GDP was –0.5 %. The per capita arable land is of 0,41 ha. The main economic branches are agriculture (cash crops, wine, fruits, meat, milk, fibers, etc), forestry (timber, fuelwood) extractive industry (minning and quarrying, oil), manufacturing (food and beverage, tobacco, textiles and textile products, leather goods and foot-wear, wood processing, pulp, paper & cardboard, publishing houses, crude oil processing, chemistry and synthetic and man-made fibers, rubber and plastic processing, metallurgy, metallic constructions and metallic products, machinery and equipment, vehicles for road transport, electrical and thermal energy, gas and water, trade, tourism, services. The structure of the Gross Domestic Product is given in At the beginning of the 21st century, Romania is still a “rural “country. Although the contribution of agriculture to the GDP doesn’t overcome 19 percent, the active population involved in agricultural activities is over 40 percent. In the last ten years the trend of agriculture contribution to the GDP is going down while the percent of the population whose resources of living come from agriculture is going up. The income of farmers is lower than that of the other socio-professional groups. It includes: 76 percent agricultural activities, 6 percent wages, 10 percent non-agricultural activities and 8 percent social services. Only 4 percent from the new land owners have their own mechanical energy and 36.3 percent only animal energy. The remaining part is based on human energy, practicing a primitive agricultural system. The agricultural sector is lead from the political point of view, at the nation-wide level, by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Forests. In each county (judet) a General Direction for Agriculture and Food corresponds to this Ministry. The professional side is covered by specialised departments, both at governmental and county level. Technical assistance (extension) is made through the National Agency for Agricultural Consultancy, with branches in each county. In the 20th century the Romanian agriculture underwent a dramatic evolution. After World War II, for about fourty years, the socialist (state and collective property) was introduced. Nowadays ca. 82 percent of Romania’s agricultural land is privately owned and about 18 percent belongs to the state and mixed sector. Table 1.2.5 shows the present day structure of the agricultural exploitations. From the total agricultural land owned by the private sector at the beginning of the year 2001, 12.9 percent belongs to agricultural societies with juridical personality, 5.3 percent to family associations and 81.8 percent to individual farmers. The later one represents 99.7 percent of the total number of private agricultural exploitations. The average number of agricultural exploitations grouped upon their size in given in table 1.2.6 and charts 1.2.6.a and 1.2.6.b. From this table it results that the number of exploitations below 4 ha represents 87.3 percent. Those are estates whose income covers only the family needs, matching the exploitation expenses. The livestock breeding is done mainly by family and associative exploitations, located generally in subsistence farms. The present day status of livestock estates upon size and structure, according to the main species, is given in table1.2.7. Almost in all cases of the private farms, farming activities are hampered by poor capital formation and by lack of inputs and of high-level technologies. Land fragmentation (several ten mill. parcels) adds also serious constraints, and at present time land consolidation to create larger and more economic plots is a difficult task due to the deep-seated historical suspicion against such technique among the ruralpopulation. These problems are further aggravated by the high number of part-time, generally city inhabitants, and elderly agriculturalists. Thus, not all farmers are engaged in agriculture on a full time basis, and over 20 percent are people of more than 65 years old. The ageing of the labour force in rural areas is higher than in the urban ones. The females are slightly prevalent over the males: 51 versus 49 percent. Education and research in agriculture is a well developed system: 5 state Agricultural and Veterinary Medicine Universities (Bucharest, Iasi, Cluj, Timisoara, Craiova) including 123 Agricultural colleges. Besides this, there are several private universities where agricultural knowledge is teached, in separate Colleges or as special courses. The Romanian Agriculture receives an important scientific support provided by the Academy of Agricultural nd Forestry Sciences which comprises 17 institutes and research centres and 78 research and production units. The research carried out ranges from plant and animal breeding, crop and livestock management techniques, up to rural economy, land-use, soil evaluation and conservation, and agricultural environment protection. Unfortunately agricultural research is not at present among the priorities of the governmental policy. The educational level of the populations working in agriculture is characterised by: 35 percent graduated from elementary schools, 56 percent graduated from some high schools (including agricultural colleges, professional schools) and only about 6 percent illiterate. There are about 50000 college-graduated (agronomists, veterinaries, mechanical engineers, soil scientists, etc). The health care is assured in the framework of the nation-wide system of health care. In the rural zones there is a large network of medical clinics and hospitals. Transport network. The network of public system transport is used, no special transport network for agriculture being available. In farms inter-parcels and field access roads are used, mostly unmetalled ones, a fact that creates serious difficulties to agricultural exploitations in rainy seasons. Mechanical equipment As table 1.2.8 and chart 1.2.8 show, the main agricultural machinery was characterised by a strong fluctuation during the last fifteen years The major crops are: cereals for grains (wheat, barley, maize), root and tuber crops (potatoes, sugar beet), pulses (beans, peas), oil seeds (sunflower, soybean, rapes, linseed), vegetables (peas green), grapes, orchard fruits and fodder crops. Most part of them are used both as food crops and cash crops (when in excess). Among the cash crops the most important are: wheat, barley, maize (partly), sunflower, soybean and sugar beet, grapes (as wine), tobacco. From the table 1.2.9 and chart 1.2.9 it results that the last ten years the total agricultural vegetal production underwent high fluctuations, due mainly to weather - related events (frequent droughts). E.g.: cereals between 10 477 and 22 100 thousand tons; oil seeds between 791 and 1 484 thousand tons; root and tuber crops between 4 137 and 6 576 thousand tons. The evolution of livestock structure and that of the agricultural animal production in the 1991-2000 period are given in table 1.2.10 and table 1.2.11 respectively. The projections of MAFF for the 2001-2004 period concerning production of the main field crops are given in table 1.2.12. The production of the cereals for grains will reach ca 20 000 thousand tons, of which wheat ca 6 185 thousand tons, and maize 11 470 thousand tons. The major food source of Romanian population is agriculture: crop and livestock breeding. The high weather-related fluctuations of the agricultural production, amplified by the low infrastructure and by the technological constraints, lead to a strange situation that, in the last decade, the food demand was not fulfilled at the standards recommended by the international specialised organisation (FAO and WHO). According to European Union statistics for CEECs 2000-2006, the balance between agricultural production and domestic use in the 1996 – 1999 period shows strong fluctuations: cereals from -2.01 mill. tons +2.66 mill. tons; oil seeds from -14 to +242 thousand tons; milk from -14 to -40 thousand tons. Beef and veal from -7 to -48 thousand tons; pig meat from 14 to 37 thousand tons (the only full positive balance); poultry meat from -2 to -25 thousand tons. The demand for cereals is stabilised to ca 161 kg per capita and it is matched depending on the level of annual production. In the last five years only the demand for potatoes, legumes and sometimes wheat has been fulfilled. Table 1.2.13 depicts the present day annual animal product consumptions and the projections for 2004/2006. The European Union projection for 2006 indicates an increase in cereal production to 19 mill. tons (against 15 mill. Tons in 1999), while that of the oil-seeds remain very similar to the 1999 one. Milk production is expected to increase with 0.3 mill. tons; significant increase is foreseen at beef and veal, pig and poultry meat. However, according to EU Projections, Romania will remain a net-importer of beef and veal meat of up to 40 000 tons annually. In Romania there are also programs to improve the nutritional quality of food for the children as concerning the mineral salts (Mg, Fe, Ca) and proteins content. The main method to meet the domestic demand is to increase the yield per hectare using higher inputs, improved seeds and better tchnologies in parallel with organizational and socio-economical measures. The necessary production is shown in table 1.2.14. Tables [ 1.2.1. Population][ 1.2.2. Major employment sectors (1999)][ 1.2.3. Employment rate/Economic activity rate][ 1.2.4. Structure of the Gross Domestic Product - 1998 – (percent)][ 1.2.5. Kinds and size of private and estate agricultural estates (changes in the 1996-2000 period at nation –wide level)][ 1.2.6. Grouping of private agricultural estates according to their average size (nation-wide level)][ 1.2.7. Size and structure of livestock farms at 1 May 2000][ 1.2.8. Agricultural machinery (units)][ 1.2.9. Total production of the main crops ‘000 t][ 1.2.10. Projected production for the main field crops 2001-2004][ 1.2.11. Agricultural animal production][ 1.2.12. Projected annual production for the main field crops 2001-2004][ 1.2.13. Animal product consumption per capita in Romania in 1999 and projections for 2004/2006][ 1.2.14. Necessities to meet the food demand of Romania population]Charts [ 1.2.1. Population][ 1.2.2. Major employment sectors (1999)][ 1.2.3. Employment rate/Economic activity rate][ 1.2.4. Structure of the Gross Domestic Product - 1998 – (percent)][ 1.2.6.a. Grouping of private agricultural estates according to their average size (nation-wide level) – percent of total number][ 1.2.6.b. Grouping of private agricultural estates according to their average size (nation-wide level) – percent of total agricultural area][ 1.2.8. Agricultural machinery (units)][ 1.2.9. Total production of the main crops ‘000 t]
1.2 > 1.1.3 Climate The climate of Romania is a mild, continental temperate one with four seasons clearly distinguished, with the precipitation mainly in the warm season (especially at its beginning). Some Mediterranean influence occurs in the southern part of the country. The continental character of the Romanian climate, with an important range of temperature both in the diurnal and in the annual cycles, is related to the country position on the continent (at 2 000 km from the Atlantic Ocean, at 1 000 km from the Baltic Sea, and at 400 km from the Adriatic Sea) and also to the shield effect of the mountains. The very changeable configuration of the baric field makes the territory of Romania accessible to a very large scale of air masses, adding to the climate the transition character. The instability of the relation among the mains baric centers leads to important variations of the duration of the meteorological context, that is why it is possible to have on one hand important intervals with cyclonic circulation and a high amount of precipitation and long intervals with a high pressure regime, while on the other hand there are quick changes from the anticyclonic to the cyclonic regime and vice-versa, with corespondent changes in the weather condition. The average yearly temperature is 8 - 110 C in the agricultural area and decreases to -20 C on the summit of the Carphatians. The frost-free period varies from 200 - 240 to 100 - 120 days, respectively. In the agricultural area average precipitation varies between 400 and 800 mm/year and average potential evapotranspiration between 600 and 700 mm/year, while in the mountain area precipitation rises to over 1200 mm mm/year and potential evapotranspiration is less than 500 mm/year. Precipitation has a very unevenly distribution during the years. Severe drought phenomena generally show repeatability of 15 – 25 years. The extension of the territory over almost 50 in latitude leads to quite important differences in temperature between the south and the north of the country for the air temperature, while the 100 extension in longitude leads to only reduced such differences. If the mean annual temperature in the south of the country is ca. 110 C, in the north of the country at the same altitude the values for the same parameter are lower with ca. 30 C. Between the west side and the east side of the country the temperature difference is only ca. 10 C (100 C in the west, 110 C in the east). The differences of the precipitation are more important, from about 700 mm in west side of the country to less than 400 mm in the east side. The altitude imposes differences up to 140 C for the mean annual temperature between south low-level extremity of the country (11.00 C) and the Vârfu Omu (-2,70 C), the highest weather station in the Romania (2 507 m altitude). The slope aspect is also very important for temperature, but especially for precipitation. If the slope runs to the south are warmer, with higher range of temperature, the slopes exposed to the North and particularly to the West, receive a more important amount of precipitation as result of the circulation mainly from the west, specific to the latitude of the Romania. According to the USDA – NRSC (unofficial data) the length of period of the year when both moisture and temperature conditions are suitable for crop production (growing period - FAO), at nation wide level, ranges between 69 and 226 days. Values of less than 100 days are characteristic to the southeastern part of the country, frequently affected by severe droughts. Maps 1.3.1, 1.3.2, 1.3.3 and 1.3.4 present the main climate characteristics of Romania. Maps: [ [ Map 1.3.2. Romania annual average precipitation][ Map 1.3.3. Romania climatic map][ Map 1.3.4. Romania index of climate aridity]1.3 > 1.
|
|
2. Land resources 2.1 Physiography2.2 Soils2.3 Agroecological systems2.4 Wetlands2.5 Inundation Land Types2.6 Natural hazards2.7 Land cover2.8 Land use2.9 Land use change2.10 Land Productivity2.11 Environmental Impact of land uses2. > top |
|
|
|
The average absolute altitude of the Romanian territory is of 420 m. The altitudinal distribution of the country area is: 38percent below 200 m; 40percent between 200 and 700 m, and ca. 22 percent above 700 m, of which only 4 percent is above 1500 m. Map 2.1.1 depicts the physical features of Romania. The general morphotectonic structure of Romania is strongly connected with the evolution of the Thetys Ocean, situated between the African and Eurasian plates and with the genesis of the Alpino-Carpatho-Hymalayan mountainous range. Romania has a complex physiography with a somewhat concentric distribution of the three main relief components: mountains, hills, piedmonts and tablelands, plains. Map 2.1.2 shows eight major geomorphological units as follows: Carpathians mountains, with 2 544 m maximum absolute altitude and with a complex lithological structure: crystalline schists, Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, and also with a large participation of igneous rocks. They total 31 percent of the country area and are used for forestry and alpine rangeland. Hills, piedmonts and tablelands, totalising 36 percent of the country area, with a mixed landuse: arable land, vineyards, orchards, pastures, forests. Four main subunits are distinguished: The Transylvanian Depression (Tableland) located in the middle of the country and surrounded by The Carpathian Arch; it exhibits an undulated to hilly relief (250 – 700 m absolute altitude) consisting of tertiary deposits. The outer Carpathian hills and Piedmonts (250 - 1 000 m absolute altitude), of tertiary and Quaternary age respectively. The Moldavian Tableland (200 - 500 absolute altitude), extending eastwards of the Carpathian range, with a hilly and undulated relief consisting of tertiary sediments. The Dobrudja Tableland situated in the southeastern part of the country at the Black Sea shore; it consists of Precambrian green schists, crystalline and igneous rocks, Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks. Plains, totalising 33 percent of the whole country area, and representing the outer circle, are used mainly as arable land. Three main units are distinguished: The Romanian Plain (Romanian Lower Danube Plain), developed on the left side of the lower Danube course, represents a low lying (< 200 m absolute altitude) and relatively flat area covered with Quaternary deposits: loess, clays, sands and fluviatiles materials. The Banat-Crisan Plain extends westward of the western Carphatians at the eastern edge of the Great Panonian Depression; it has low absolute altitudes (< 200 m) and is covered with fluviatile and loess deposits, with important areas of clays and sands. The Danube Flood Plain and Delta represents a low-lying inundable area. The Danube Flood Plain has a width of 1 - 2 to 25 km and consists exclusively of fluviatile deposit. Nowadays the most part of it is embanked and cropped. The Danube Delta is the largest wetland o Europe; it developed at the mouth of the Danube River. The western (fluviatile) half is dominated by riverine and organic deposits. The eastern (marine) one is characterised by a large extension of sand bars (marine levees). Maps: [2.1.1. Romania – physical map] [2.1.2. Romania – geomorphology] Tables: [2.1.1. Geomorphological units and subunits] 2.1 > 2. 2.2 Soils
The most important agricultural soils of Romania are Chernozems, Phaeozems, Kastanozems - 28.5 percent, Luvisols - 26.3 percent, Fluvisols and Regosols - 11.9 percent, Vertisols - 2.1 percent and Arenosols - 0.7 percent, widespread in the plains, tablelands and slightly undulated regions: Romanian and Banato-Crisan Plains, Dobrudja and Moldavian Tablelands, Central part of the Transilvania Depression. In the agricultural areas Solonetz and Solonchaks are present up to 0.8 percent. Other important soils are Cambisols - 21.7 percent and Podzols and Andosols - 4.9 percent, which are the dominant soils in some hilly regions and mountain areas, respectively. Most agricultural soils in Romania are deep, with no coarse fragments, generally with 25 - 50 percent clay, and more than a quarter (mainly Luvisols) have a clayey almost impermeable subsoil being subject in many years to temporary surface waterlogging. The humus content ranges usually between 2 and 4 percent, the pH between 5.5 and 8.5. Available phosphorus content is generally low, but the available potassium is high. Maps: [2.2.1. Romania – soil map] Tables: [2.2.1. Soil associations of Romania] Charts: [2.2.1. Soil associations of Romania]
2.2 > 2. 2.3 Agroecological systems
I. The Warm and Dry agroecological zone comprises the steppe and partly the forest steppe regions from the south and eastern part of the country; a small area in the western side also being included. The climate is characterised by an average annual temperature between 10.5 and 11.50C and an annual average precipitation between 325 and 600 mm. The length of growing period ranges between 69 and 133 days/year. The landforms of this zone are represented mainly by low plains (< 200 m absolute altitude) and by slightly dissected tablelands, covered by loess deposits and on smaller areas by fluviatile materials and sands. The soils are mainly represented by Chernozems, Phaeozems and Luvisols; relatively large sectors are occupied by Fluvisols; also Arenosols, Vertisols, Solonetz and Solonchaks occur. The arable land occupies more than 80 percent of the total area. In the major part of this zone (that included in the steppe zone with < 500 mm precipitation) the main constraint for agricultural use is the lack of precipitation during the growing period and the high frequency (up 63 years from 100) of severe drought. In the dissected tablelands areas water erosion, and in sandy areas wind erosion is present. Soil salinity and sodicity affects also some low-lying lands. Most of the irrigation projects were developed in this zone. The land capability is of the 2nd class (48 percent) and 3rd class (45 percent) with a minor participation of the 4th class (7 percent). The zone is well to moderately suitable for winter wheat and barley, and moderately to fairly suitable for grain maize and sunflower. II. The Moderately Warm - Subhumid agroecological zone corresponds roughly to the Oak Forest and forest-steppe vegetation zone of the outer Carpathians area and of the western part of the Transilvania Tableland. The climate is characterised by an annual average temperature between 8.0 and 10.5 0C, an annual average precipitation of 500 – 700 mm; the length of growing period ranges between 125 and 226 days/year. The landforms consist mainly of piedmonts, plains and hills, mainly of low gradient ones. The soil parent material is varied: loess, clays, colluvial and fluviatile deposits. The soil cover consists mainly of Phaeozems, Luvisols, Cambisols and Vertisols. Within this zone the cropland is the dominant land use, but in some areas forests and grassland are prevalent. The main constraint for agricultural use is water erosion, often associated with terrain deformation (gullies and landslides). The land capability is of the 3rd class (67 percent) with important areas of 4th class (22 percent) and 2nd class (15 percent). The zone is of moderate to low suitability for winter wheat, barley, grain maize, sunflower and sugar beet, but with high suitability for fruit-trees and grapes. III. The Cool-Humid agroecological zone overlaps roughly the oak and oak-beech forest zones and stretches, mainly along both sides of the Carpathians range, corresponding to a hilly area of high gradient; however, there are some tablelands and intramountainous depressions with an almost flat relief. The climate is a cool and relatively humid one: 50 to 90 C mean annual temperature and 600 - 900 mm mean annual precipitation. The length of the growing period is the largest of Romania: 194 to 226 days/year. The soil parent materials consists of loess, sands, clays, marls, sandstones and, on large areas, of colluvial deposits. The agricultural soils are represented by Cambisols, Luvisols and Phaeozems. Cropland is prevalent only in that part that belongs to the Transilvania Tableland, while in the part stretching outward the Carpathian range forests and grassland are dominant. The main constraints are the steep slopes, soil erosion and terrain deformation. The land capability is of the 3rd class (83 percent) and of 4th class (17 percent). The suitability is moderate to low for winter wheat and barley, low for grain maize and good to moderate for potatoes and sugar beet, good to very good for fruit trees. IV. The Cold Wet agroecological zone corresponds to the mountains region, with low temperature (< 50C) and high amount of precipitation (> 900 mm/year). Dominant soils are Cambisols and Podzols. It is used mainly as forestland and grassland. General characteristics of the four agroecological zones are given in table 2.3.1. Althous.gh the soil resources of Romania are rather of good quality, due to various constraints (high frequency of droughts, water and wind erosion, steep slopes) the average capability class of agricultural lands is of the third rank. Land capability and suitability classes for the major crops are given in table 2.3.2 (charts 2.3.2.a., 2.3.2.b, 2.3.2.c and 2.3.2.d) and table 2.3.3, respectively average yields per ha for the main crops in table 2.3.4 and chart 2.3.4; these tables are related to maps 2.3.2, 2.3.3, 2.3.4 and 2.3.5. The average land productivity per ha for main crops is shown in the table 2.3.4 and chart 2.3.4. Maps: [2.3.1. Romania – agroecological zones] [2.3.2. Romania – capability class (arable land use suitability)] [2.3.3. Romania – suitability for wheat] [2.3.4. Romania – suitability for maize] [2.3.5. Romania – suitability for sunflower] Tables: [2.3.1. Agroecological zones characteristics] [2.3.2. Land capability of agricultural land] [2.3.3. Land suitability of arable land for major annual field crops] [2.3.4. Average yields per ha for main crops] Charts: [2.3.2.a Land capability of agricultural land for general agricultural land use] [2.3.2.b Land capability of agricultural land for annual filed crops] [2.3.2.c Land capability of agricultural land for grazing] [2.3.2.d Land capability of agricultural land for trees and shrubs] [2.3.4. Average yields per ha for main crops]
2.3 > 2. 2.4 Wetlands
In Romania, wetland is represented mainly by marshes, swamps and shallow fresh water lakes. From the previous extent (5.8 percent of the total country area at the beginning of the 20th century), wetlands have been reduced to about one fifth of initial figure. The most severe loss (400 thousand ha) took place in the Danube Flood Plain and in a lesser extent (40 thousand ha) in the Danube Delta, where much wetland was drained and converted agricultural lands. According to CORINE estimation, at the beginning are the 21st century wetlands occupy ca 254 thousand ha (1.1 percent of the country area). The largest wetland areas are those situated in the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (ca. 200 thousand ha). On much smaller areas they are scattered in some inland valley bottoms, usually behind man made dams around artificial lakes, and very few in the mountainous regions. The catchment area of each wetland area, as well as other physical and environmental characteristics, are not very well known. An exception is represented by the wetland from the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve. For inland wetlands a special research program is underway. Wetlands are used in different purposes: biodiversity conservation, cattle breeding, fishing, wildfowl, and locally agriculture (on higher levees). In the Danube Delta, where wetlands support extensive reed-beds (ca 160 thous. ha), reed harvest is a traditional activity. Today harvesting of reeds provides material for both local and international market. Wetlands have more beneficial impact on environmental than agricultural land, especially by sequestration of higher amounts of atmospheric CO2, through luxury vegetation and organic soils that develop there. In dry regions, wetlands contribute to improve air humidity and to increase temperature gradient within the atmosphere above them, thus helping in producing rain. On the other side, due to anaerobic conditions wetlands have also adverse effects by producing CH4, H2S and other gaseous emissions. Through drainage and cultivation, due to subsequent climate change, much wetland, especially peatlands, may be transformed from a sink to a source of atmospheric CO2. The dominant soils in the wetalnd area of Romania are organic ones, rich in sulfides in the Danube Delta and strongly acid in the mountains region. Mineral soils are dominant in the wetlands of inlands rivers. Most part of wetland in Romania is of riverine - lacustrine origin. It is feeded through river floods or by ground water, this one being always at or near the ground surface. Rainfed wetland occurs in the cool-humid regions. Wetlands of the dry-warm climatic zones are waterlogged or submerged in the spring and early summer and may dry up in the late summer and fall, especially in droughty years. Wetlands of cool-humid zone are almost permanently waterlogged. Annual flooding is experienced mainly by wetlands from the Danube Delta, from April (May) to July (August). A small part of them may dry-up in September-October. Floods are generally not violent. The availability of water is generally good. There are few data on water quality. The water of the Danube Delta wetland is eutrophic with respect to phosphorus and nitrogen. The salt content (mainly chlorides and sulfates) is < 0,5 g per liter. The water from the reed beds is poor in oxygen and rich in dissolved organic matter. In eutrophic environments the marsh vegetation is represented mainly by plant associations of reed (Phragmites sp.), sedge (Carex sp.) and reed mace (Typha sp). In swamps, alder (Alnus sp) and willows (Salix sp) are often present. The aquatic vegetation is represented by submerged and floating species: Magnopotamion. sp., Cerotophilletum demersi, Nymphaea sp., Nuphar, Trapa natans, Potamogeton sp., etc. In dystrophic environments wetland vegetation consists of Sphagnum sp., Eriophorum sp., Carex sp., Calluna sp., etc. The only wetlands monitored systematically as regard pollution are those of the Danube Delta. The pollution there is caused by the high nutrient load (nitrogen and phosphorous) carried by the Danube river. Most striking is the eutrophication of surface water. 2.4 > 2. 2.5 Inundation Land Types
2.5 > 2.2.6 Natural hazards
Most of the fires take place in period of drought, especially in spring and in the second part of the summer, when forests present a high degree of kindling. Wind, together with drought, favours the spreading of the fire. The biggest danger is during the afternoon, when temperatures are higher and air streams are stronger. The coniferous forests are the most vulnerable for fire because of the resin content of the trees. Equally exposed to the fire hazard are the plantations and the cutting areas, especially the ones with vegetation remnants. The main cause for fire bursting is the breaking of the rules of fire prevention by people during the working time or during passing by (workers, tourists, cowboys and children). In few cases wild fires are produced by sparks from locomotives or vehicles which are passing through, or by lightning sun (by focussing the light through glass, etc). Between 1965 and 1998, in the forests of Romania there were 3007 fires (an average of 88 fires per year). The surface affected in these 34 years was about 9390 ha (an average of 276,2 ha per year). Relative to the total forest surface of Romania (6666 thousand ha) this represents 0,15 percent and 0,004 percent, respectively, per year. These figures show that the forests of Romania by their natural composition and structure, as well as due to local climatic conditions, have a high tolerance to fires. The control methods consist mainly in improving the education of the population concerning the risk of forest fires and by enhancing the forest monitoring system. In Romania subject to flooding hazards are mainly the floodplains of the undyked rivers. High risks of floods present also the areas crossed by torrential, intermittent watercourses in hilly and mountainous regions. Floods occur especially in springtime when snow melting is associated with rainy events. Erratically, floods may take place in every other season if heavy rains occur. The flood control is one of the main objectives of the national planning of rural development. It would be done mainly by rivers endiking, watercourses tortuosity correction, torrent catchment afforestation, building dams for water retention, etc. About 54 percent of the area of flooding hazard is already provided with works for preventing flood. 2.6 > 2. 2.7 Land cover
In the last ten years (1990-2001) the trend concerning land cover is a reduced diminishing of agricultural surfaces and increase of the artificial ones and of the seminatural areas (grassland). Map 2.7.1 depicts the geographical distribution of the land cover types in Romania. Maps: [2.7.1. Romania Corine Land Cover] Tables: [2.7.1. Areas of different land cover types (Corine classification)] Charts: [2.7.1. Areas of different land cover types (Corine classification)]
2.7 > 2. 2.8 Land use
Croplands are represented both by lands with annual field crops, e.g., wheat, barley, maize, sunflower, sugar beet, and by lands with permanent crops (e.g., orchards, vineyards). They produce both food crops and industrial crops. Land for annual field cropping is commonly used for a single crop during the calendaristic year. However, in small subsistence farms some row crops (e.g., grain maize) may be intermingled with bean, pumpkin, a.o., but this is not a generalised practice. After harvesting of some earlier crops (e.g., winter wheat, peas for grain), in the southern part of the country with large suitable temperature period, on irrigated land only, fodder crops, e.g., silo maize, silo are cultivated as second crops in some years. Land used for annual field crops ranges roughly between 9 000 and 9 500 thousand ha. Ploughing and seedbed preparation every year is the usual technique performed. Usually ploughing is done in summer time, after the harvesting of earlier crops, or in fall time after harvesting late crops. The best time of ploughing depends on the local conditions and on soil moisture content. In Romania annual field cropping may be done even withous.t fertilization, but in most cases yields are low – moderate under such conditions, and on long term the soil fertility is exhausted. To obtain economically satisfactory yields irrigation is necessary on about 40 percent of land used for annual field cropping. Areas occupied by the main field crops are given in the table 2.8.2 In the case of several technical plants and traditional crops (sugar beet, rape, flax, hemp, tobacco, castor oil crop, fodder plants, medicinal and fragrance plants) there is a diminishing of the cropped area and of yields obtained There is also a diminishing of the heated greenhouses area from 1656 ha in 1990 to 957 ha in 1999, of which 282 ha belong to the private sectors. Trees and shrubs produce only a crop per calendaristic year. They are represented by vineyards that produce table grapes and grapes for wine, orchards (apple trees, apricot trees, peach trees, plum trees, etc.) and shrubbery (e.g., strawberry). The existing area used as vineyards and orchards, thous.gh lower than that of 1990, in characterised by phenomena of ageing of some fruit ree and wine plantations and by losses due to natural calamities and to faulty way of cultivation. In 1996, from the total patrimony of vineyards of 283,8 thousand ha, 166.1 thousandha are represented by noble assortments and 117.7 thousand ha by hybrid assortments directly productive. Extensive grazing land consists mainly of alpine grasslands of the mountainous region. Due to climatic constraints (low temperatures), they are used about 4 - 5 months/year, from May till September. The grasslands of the lower zones (hills, plains) can be browsed 5 - 6 months/year. Most part of extensive grazing land is used withous.t fertilization or other soil/land improvement measures. Intensive grazing land is represented both by natural meadows and by cropped ones. They are located mostly in the humid zones of the country, while in dry regions they are irrigated or occupy low-lying areas with moister soils. Commonly they are used for hay making and are more or less fertilized. The production of grazing land varies widely from 2 to 25 tons ha green mass per ha, the average being 4,3 tons ha. The lowest amount and the lowest quality refers to the alpine grasslands. The exploitation of extensive grazing land is done in communal associations, while that of intensive ones in private (individual or family associations) or public and mixed farms. Forestland is represented by four forest ecosystems: Moderate temperate regions, with beech and sessile oak mixed forests ± Turkey oak, Hungarian oak and combinations, on high and medium hills. Orobiom from Moderate and Temperate Region, with spruce forests, beech and coniferous mixed forests, beech mountainous forests. Arid Moderate Region, with xerophillous oak forests. Extra Zonal Region of the main river and Danube Floodplains and of the Danube Delta, with poplar, willow, alder, pedunculate oak. Forestland in Romania belongs to State (95.2 percent) and only 4.8 percent to other holders, mainly private ones. Forests are used mostly for wood production (timber and fuel woods); a minor part is used for soil protection (erosion control). The forest management, cuttings, replantation, restoration, etc., are technically assisted by the State. Tables: [2.8.1 Areas of main land use types] [2.8.2. Areas occupied by the main field crops] Charts: [2.8.1 Areas of main land use types] 2.8 > 2. 2.9 Land use change
One has to outline that the general trend of diminishing the cropland area is associated with an increase of extensive grazing land, due mainly to the abandonment of some agricultural lands in the hilly regions and dissected tableland with high erosion risk. An other major cause of the cropland decrease is the socio-economic infrastructure development (constructions, roads, etc.). Generally in the last ten years the land use intensity in Romania is going down, as it is shown in table 2.9.2. The major decrease is noticed in cropland while forestland remain almost unchanged. Tables: [2.9.1. Land use change] [2.9.2. Land use intensity] 2.9 > 2. 2.10 Land Productivity
The production value per ha, averaged per 10 years (1991-2000), from annual field crops landuse (averaged for winter wheat, barley, grain maize, sunflower, bean, soyabean, sugar beet and potatoes) is of 375 USA $ per ha. For other land-use types and subtypes, grazing land, tree and shrubs and forestland, such data are not currently available. For livestock products only some examples (averaged per 10 years) can be given. E.g.: 514.6 USA $ for the value of milk per cow per year, and 13.2 USA $ the value of eggs hen per hen per year. The value of inputs is not exactly known due to the big transformation in Romanian agriculture in this period, but one estimates it as being low and very low. The trend in use of inputs is expected to increase, e.g., for annual field crops like winter wheat in the year 2001 it may reach 423.6 USA $ per ha under irrigation and 310.7 USA $ per ha under non-irrigation. Considering a market value of the average wheat production (5000 kg/ha irrigated and 3000 kg/ha non-irrigated) of 607.1 USA $ per ha and 364.3 USA $ per ha, respectively, it results a net profit per ha of 183.5 USA $ and 53.4 USA $, respectively. General data about inputs and outputs are shown in table 2.10.1. To stimulate the agricultural activity the State provides subsidies: among others, 1/2 of the price of seeds and in 2000 a fixed sum of 1 000 000 lei (ca 30 USA $) for each ha of land ploughed and sowed under specified technical conditions. The funds for running production are obtained by farmers trough selling their agricultural products. Farmers may also borrow money from Agricultural Banks with a fixed rate of interest. These sources are generally not accessible to rural, subsistence farms, which count only on their internal labour resources, and on State subsidies. In the 1991-2000 period the productivity of the main field crops, annual and permanent, show strong fluctuation, being severely affected by the high frequency of droughty years, lack of modern agricultural equipment, high fragmentation of land property, prevalence of small agricultural exploitations, irrigation projects failing, land degradation increase and dramatic drop in fertilizer use. Last but not least, a negative influence has been induced by the low market prices of agricultural products that discouraged even the most skilled farmers. At present-time one can not detect very clear trends in land productivity in Romania. A scenario for the 2001-2005 period aims to stabilise the annual field crops production per ha, e.g., for winter wheat at 5 000 kg/ha (irrigated) and 3 000 kg/ha nonirrigated and for grain maize at 6 000 kg/ha and 4000 kg/ha, respectively. For a sustainable development of agricultural production a complex research programme is going to be implemented. The future trend of agricultural production in this country depends also on external factors, among which the most important is the agricultural policy of the European Union which Romania intends to join. Tables: [2.10.1. Main inputs and production value per ha for some of the main annual field crops estimated for the agricultural year 2001.] 2.10 > 2. 2.11 Environmental Impact of land uses
The main environmental impact of land use results mostly from advanced deforestation of hilly, tablelands and plain regions and from inadequate agricultural management of land resources. Since long time ago the agricultural production in Romania has been obtained in principal on the basis of the natural soil fertility. To return to the soil the amount of nutrients exported through crops, the use of fertilizers has never been in this country adequate. This “mining” of the soil fertility increased after 1989 due to a dramatic drop in fertilizers use (see 4). To supervise the quality of both agricultural and forest soil a monitoring system has been implemented in Romania since 1992, on a grid of 942 sites (16 * 16 km spaced), of which 670 sites on agricultural land and 272 sites on forest land; it is connected to the European Soil System Monitoring Network. This grid is shown in map 2.11.1. Eutrophication of surface waterbodies due to overuse of nitrates show a decreasing trend as a consequence of the reduced amount of nitrogen fertilizers used in the last ten years in Romanian agriculture. A still high eutrophication is shown by the waterbodies from the Danube Delta due to macronutrients load carried by this river from upstream. The same decreasing trend of eutrophication in also recorded for the ground water, althous.gh it suffered over time a contaminating process with nitrates (NO3-) from different sources, mainly from domestic use and from livestock raising. Ground water pollution with nitrates is regionally differentiated. There are areas with more than 45 mg/l, but also areas with less than 45 mg/l NO3 (the maximum limit allowed for drinking water). The soil acidification (dystrification) by over-use of nitrates is difficult to assess because often it overlaps natural (genetic) soil acidity. However, one estimates that about 841 thousand ha of agricultural lands have been acidified trough excessive use of nitrogen. The extent of gaseous losses from agricultural land that contributes to climate change can not be separated from the global gaseous emission at the nation-wide level. In the 1989-2000 period these losses were 1,45 - 3,33 CO2, tons per inhabitant. Concerning the amount of nitrogen and methane emission, there are no current data available. Maps: [2.11.1 Network of the soil monitoring system in Romania] 2.11 > 2. |
|
3. Water Resources (AQUASTAT) 3.1 Hydrography3.2 Irrigation and drainage3. > top |
|
|
Romania is relatively poor in water resources: ca. 75 000 mill. m3 from which 67 000 mill. m3 surface water and 8000 mill. m3 ground water. The specific water resource is ca. 3246 m3/inhabitant/year, but 1650 m3/inhabitant/year withous.t Danube river. Almost all-surface water resources originate from the inland rivers and from the Danube. The total resources from inland waters amount to an average multiannual flow volume of 42,293 mill.m3, where the largest share is held by the Siret (17%), Mures (13.8%) and Olt (13%) rivers. At the inlet into the country, the Danube's multiannual input is of 175,598 mill.m3. It is noteworthy that the water resources of this river are also available to the neighbouring countries (Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and Ukraine). The Romanian share from the Danube waters is estimated to 85 000 mill. m3. The surface water resources by seasons (as flown volumes mill. m3) for the inland rivers and the Danube are given in table 3.1.1. The draughtiest season is the autumn, when only 14.2 percent of the annual volume is discharged by the land rivers and 18.6 percent by the Danube. In droughty years (80 percent probability), the total volume flown by the inland rivers (29 658 mill. m3) is just 70 percent of the mean multiannual volume (  = 42 293 mill. m3), whereas during an excessively droughty year (95percent probability) the total flown volume (22 309 mill. m3) is just 52.7 percent of the multiannual one.The Danube displays a different regime. The contribution of the tributaries from the Alps region preserves the flown volume along the river at a high level even during years droughty in this country, i.e., between 84 percent and 72 percent of the multiannual one (Table 3.1.2). The monthly and seasonal distribution of the volume drained in the main hydrographic basins, as well as the volumes drained under normal conditions and in droughty years, are shown in the table 3.1.2 and table 3.1.3, respectively. The spatial distribution of the water resources under droughty conditions is particularly non-uniform. Thus, the plateau and plain areas in the south and east of Romania are the most affected by the prolonged droughts. In those areas, the river dry-running occurs during the summer – autumn interval. The deficit of water resources in these areas, the most important from the agricultural standpoint, is however partially compensated by the contribution brought by the large rivers springing in the Carpathian and whose mountain basin is well developed (e.g., Arges, Ialomita). Ground water dynamics and storage potential depend on the local/regional hydrogeological conditions, such as lithology, aquifers spatial disposition and recharge. These characteristics generally determine the hydraulic conditions of the aquifers, delimited as phreatic/deep aquifers. Phreatic aquifers occur up to a depth of 50 meters and are directly influenced by meteorological factors. The second type of ground water concerns aquifers which occur down to this depth and are isolated of the surface conditions by impermeable layers. As it is shown in table 3.1.4, the total phreatic ground water resources computed at the level of the whole territory are evaluated at 173.7 m3/s (balance resource: 155.9 m3/s), and the total resource calculated just for the area with delimited aridity potential is 94.204 m3/s. Similarly table 3.1.5 refers to the phreatic aquifers; the deep ground water exploitable resources assessed for the entire country area are 190.9 m3/s (balance resource 185,2 m3/s), whereas for the area delimited as having an aridisation potential they are 184.6 m3/s. The main international rivers are the Danube and the Prut, which form the borders with Bulgaria and Yugoslavia, and respectively with Moldavia. Of international interest are also the rivers from the western part of Romania: the Somes, Cris and Mures rivers, shared with Hungary, and the Timis river, shared with Yugoslavia. With all these countries Romania has international agreements. Dams The natural water resources originating from the surface sources are non-uniformly distributed over the Romanian territory. At the same time, these resources vary not only seasonally, but also from year to year. In these circumstances, meeting the water requirements for different uses of electric power production, for flooding defense and for reducing the effects of drought cannot be performed in Romania otherwise than by building dams for water storage and inter-basin derivations to redistribute the water resources in time and space. In this sense, more than 400 dams for water storage and flood control have been constructed in Romania with a volume of over 11 bill.m3. The water volume storage of the main dams is given in table 3.1.6. Most of the storage lakes are situated in the hydrographic basins mostly subject to high pressure concerning water requirements or displaying manageable economic hydro-power potential: the Arges, Siret, Mures, Somes-Tisa, Olt, etc. One can notice that more than half (68 percent) of the surface water of Romania is of the first quality class, while degraded water represents only about one tenth (11 percent) of the whole volume. After 1989, the trend in agricultural water withdrawal is a decreasing one due to both reduction of the irrigated area and to dismantling of the huge industrial complexes of livestock breeding. The same decreasing trend takes place in industry. The re-use of waste water in agriculture is almost inexistent or very locally Maps: [3.1.1. Major hydrographic basins (catchments)] Tables: [3.1.1. Surface water resources] [3.1.2. Surface water resources – monthly and seasonal distribution] [3.1.3. Volume drained in the surface hydrographic network] [3.1.4. Exploitable phreatic aquifers] [3.1.5. Exploitable deep aquifers] [3.1.6. Water volume storage lake capacity] [3.1.7. Surface waters quality] [3.1.8. Quality of ground water] 3.1 > 3. 3.2 Irrigation and drainage
Within the irrigated areas annual field crops represent ca. 90 percent, the other 10 percent being represented by vegetables, fruit-trees and grapes. The largest irrigation schemes are located in the southern and southeastern part of the country, within the Romanian Plain and Dobrudja Tableland. All schemes are based on waters brought into the field by canals, using electrical powered pumping stations. Irrigation in Romania is fully controlled. The watering is made commonly (80 percent) by sprinkling. Locally, surface irrigation with furrows is used. Flooding irrigation is applied only in very small areas (rice fields). Concerning the development trend of drip and sprinkler irrigation, the last one remains a basic technique. Drip irrigation is of minor interest, and is limited to orchards, grape plantation and glasshouse vegetables. No spate irrigation is used. The most part of the irrigation water originates from surface water: rivers, lakes (natural and antropic ones). The main irrigation water sources are the Danube River and some inland rivers (Olt, Siret, Jiu). The ground water is used for irrigation only locally, e.g. in the Danube Flood Plain and in the flood plains of some inland rivers (Buzau, Calmatui) where rich groundwater resources were identified. Waste water use in irrigation is still very limited, on one side due to the reduced facilities for cleansing, but mostly because the existing surface and ground water resources are enough to satisfy the needs of the areas that for climate and soil conditions are prone to irrigation. Hydromeliorative ones, characterised by a single water source that represent an integrated functional body (water source, a canal or several canals for bringing water, canals or pipes for water distribution, mobile watering equipment). The size of most of these projects ranges between 15 000 and 150 000 ha. Administrative projects derived from the hydromeliorative ones. Their size ranges between 20000 and 30000 ha. For exploitation the irrigation sproject is divided in sectors of variable size, commonly between 5 000 and 10 000 ha. The project is managed by a prtoject head and is organised in departments (hydro, mechanics, electric, watering prognosis). Each irrigation project depends on a County Branch of the National Society for Land Reclamation The number of beneficiaries of a project, before 1989, was commonly between 3 and 10 (Collective farms and State farms). In [resen- time the beneficiaries may be of order of hundreds when they are farmers, but much fewer when they are represented by family or juridical associations. In the future, by organisation of Water Users Associations, the number of beneficiaries will be reduced. Cost of irrigation development is of about 1 800 - 2 000 USA $ per ha. The cost of irrigation water is as an average of 24 USA $ per ha. The amount of irrigation water used ranges from 1 200 - 2 300 m3/ha for winter wheat and barley, to 2 800 - 3 600 m3/ha for grain maize. The return from irrigation may amount to ca. 130 USA $/ha for wheat and 83 USA $/ha for maize. The cost of bringing irrigation water into the field is partially supported by the State, but the watering of crops is supported by the farmers. The main irrigated crops are: grain maize, winter wheat, soybean, sunflower, successive fodder crops, sugar beet, potatoes, bean, grapes and fruit-trees. Yields obtained in experimental fields from irrigated row crops and fodder crops were generally two-fold and those from irrigated wheat 50-60 percent higher as compared with those of the rainfed ones. In absolute values, yields of grain maize were 5-6 tons/ha non-irrigated, against 10-12 tons/ha irrigated, of soybean 1.3 tons/ha against 3.3 tons/ha, of alfalfa (green mass) 20-25 tons/ha against 50-60 tons/ha. In charge with water resources is the National Company “Romanian Waters”. In charge with irrigation is the National Society for Land Reclamation. They have mandates concerning water resources share and management at nation-wide level and irrigation projects development, maintenance and rehabilitation, respectively. There are no serious constraints as concern the water resources necessary to cover the needs of the possibly irrigable area. The water management is regulated by the Water Law no. 107/1996 and the land status by the Land Law no. 18/1991. At the time being, there is no need to extend irrigation. The main problem is to rehabilitate, at least partially, the existing irrigation schemes (3.2 mill. ha). In 2000, the droughtiest year of the last century, only about 9.4 percent of land with irrigation facilities were watered. Besides the above mentioned technical problems, the main constraints for irrigation use and development are the social economic ones: high fragmentation of the land tenure and small size of agricultural exploitations. 3.1 > 3. |
|
|
|
4. Plant nutrient resources 4.1 Plant nutrient use and nutrient balance4.2 Fertilizer production and costs4. > top |
|
|
|
4.1 Plant nutrient use and nutrient balance At present, there is a large consensus referring to the fact that a productive agriculture is an imperative condition for ensuring the increase of the economic development in the developing countries. Romania was active on the above-mentioned worldwide line of mineral fertilizer use, especially since 1965, creating also important capacities to produce factory-made fertilizers. During a period of about 20 years (1965-1986) macro-nutrient fertilizers consumption increased of approximately 5 times, from 266.4 thou. tons of active ingredients to 1 293.3 thou. tons of active ingredients (a. i.). After 1989 the fertilizers consumption unfortunately drastically decreased to 331 thou. tons a. i. in 1999, approximately 3.3 times lower than in 1990, as one can see in table 4.1.1 and chart 4.1.1. The decrease was more important for potassium fertilizers (approximately 10 times lower). Under these conditions, the fertilization rates reached levels of 35.3 kg/ha of arable land and 22.4 kg/ha of agricultural land, respectively. This trend, more or less accentuated, is specific to all countries of Eastern and Central Europe. Among the causes of this accentuated decrease of nutrients consumption it may be mentioned: high prices of mineral fertilizers as compared to the value of agricultural products, clos of many fertilizers factories, creation of mill. of new small land lots, as well as low professional education level of farmers in connection with the modern technologies of soil and crop management. It is interesting to mention the fact that, while the consumption of mineral fertilizers as well as of organic fertilizers significantly decreased in 1990-1999, the vegetal production generally recorded a gradual positive evolution, excepting in 1992, when it decreased with about 11 per cent. In the other years, the yields recorded increases, sometimes even significant (about 20 percent in 1997 and 1999), according to table 4.1.2. This situation, apparently paradoxical, can have an explanation in the relatively low yields obtained in 1990 (a reference year), determined by the poor management of fertilizers within a still centralised national economy, as well as by the low efficiency of fertilizers due to shortage of water for irrigation (only 30% of the national irrigation system capacity). At the same time, the crops could benefit of the nutrient remained in the soil from previous fertilization. It is evident that under the conditions of a drastic decrease of fertilizer use, the agriculture became a "mining agriculture", where the nutrients removed by yields are returned in soil at a very low rate. This feature can lead to progressive soil fertility depletion. A comprehensive interpretation of systematic agrochemical soil testing data from National Romanian Soil Quality Monitoring System (1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1998) surely reveals this trend, as given in table 4.1.3 and table 4.1.4. A systematic trendof change of the agrochemical supply status from the better soil classes to the poorer soil classes of humus content and available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content is observed. If the change from a high to a moderate supply class does not matter regarding the sufficient needs of the agricultural crops, on the contrary, this trend of change to a lower supply class is a warning on the accentuated degradation of soil fertility properties, with possible negative economic effects on productivity when some compensation measures lack. Thus, as concerns the arable area, at the end of 1998, about 5.29 mill. ha had a low and very low humus content, with 0.022 mill. ha more than in 1992-1995, 3.05 mill. ha were poorly supplied with nitrogen, 3.37 mill. Ha were poorly supplied with phosphorus and 0.31 mill. ha poorly supplied with potassium. Those values are with 0.18 mill. ha, 0.041 mill. ha 0.03 mill. ha, respectively, higher than in the above mentioned period. In the case of agricultural land, this trend of change to lower supplied classes is more accentuated, this increasing with 0.08 mill. ha, 0.32 mill. ha, 0.087 mill. ha and 0.099 mill. ha in the case of humus, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, respectively. The relative increases in the low supplied class of the above mentioned fertility parameters are in the case of agricultural land of 0.95%, 6.30%, 1,38%, 12.64% for humus, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, respectively. It is interesting to mention the fact that, while most soils in Romania (over 80%) are well supplied with potassium and also have a high potassium buffering capacity, the relative trend of increase of the land area within the low potassium supply class is greater (12.64 percent) as compared to the situation of the other fertility parameters. This is one of evident consequences of the dramatic potassium fertilization decrease of the agricultural crops in 1990 - 1999. As concerns the soil supply with micro-nutrients (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, B and Mo), they were not yet systematically approached within National Romanian Soil Quality Monitoring System as in the case of macro-nutrients (N, P and K). The investigations carried out till now revealed important micro-nutrient reserves in most soils of Romania (50 - 90 ppm Zn, 13 - 26 ppm Cu, 600 - 1200 ppm Mn, 25000 – 38000 ppm Fe, 30 - 50 ppm B and 1.0 - 2.5 ppm Mo). These figures define these soils as being at the moderately supplied levels considered all over the world, and even over this level in the case of B. These reserves are inherited from the sedimentary soil parent materials, relatively rich in micro-nutrients (mostly loess, loesslike deposits, loams, clays). Therefore, the supply with mobile micro-nutrients of the arable zonal soils with medium texture is due to pedogenesis. There is generally a good supply with Fe, Mn and Cu, and a differentiated supply from low to good in the case of Zn, B and Mo. Among the micro-nutrient trophic disorders observed till now in Romania, the Zn deficiency is the most widespread and with the most important consequences, affecting especially maize, beans and some fruit tree species. The potential conditions of the Zn deficiency occurrence (neutral - slightly alkaline reaction, low mobile Zn level in soil) are identified on about 1.5 mill. ha in the eastern and south-eastern part of Romania. The occurrence risks enhanced by the high mobile P level in soil (over 50 ppm P extracted in ammonium lactate-acetate solution) and the climatic conditions (cold and moist weather at the beginning of the growing season). Prevention and curative Zn fertilization of sensitive crops was only experimentally practiced till now; the same situation with B and Mo. Because the micro-nutrient fertilization is not yet a common practice in crop management (and probably their application will delay still long time due to the present poor possibilities and the immediate prospectives of the Romanian economy) a permanent decline in micro-nutrient soil supply is to be expected. This decline will be accentuated under the conditions of promoting some agriculture intensification measures (high NPK rates, irrigation, liming of acid soils, cultivation of some cultivars and hybrids of high productivity, etc), as a result of soil depletion due to removing of micro-nutrients with higher crop yields. A notable exception is organic fertilization, which partially compensates by its own input the micro-nutrient export by crops. Under the conditions of such evolution of soil agrochemical supply status and of maintaining a low fertilizer input level, it is not possible to have a modern, intensive agriculture in Romania. Table 4.1.5 (with chart 4.1.5) and table 4.1.6 present data on change over time of macro-nutrient amounts applied per hectare of arable and agriculture land after 1989, taking into account the available sources (chemical fertilizers, manure, and vegetable residues from legume in rotation with other crops). Besides the very important decrease of macro-nutrient applied in 1999 as compared to the 1990 (with about 58% in the case of N and 62-63% in the case of P and K), also significant changes in the participation weight of the different available sources may be observed. Thus, in 1990, 80% of N was coming from chemical fertilizers and 16% from organic fertilizers and 4% from legume residues; 81% of P was from chemical fertilizers, 19 % from organic fertilizers, while 52% of potassium was from chemical fertilizers and 48% from organic fertilizers. In 1999, their structure changed as follows: 65% of N was coming from chemical fertilizers, 25% from organic fertilizers and 9% from legume residues, 65% of P from chemical fertilizers and 35% from organic fertilizers, while 13% of K was from chemical fertilizers and 86% from organic fertilizers. From table 4.1.7 it results that, generally, the amount of active ingredients (N + P2O5 + K2O) from the above mentioned available sources, applied per hectare of arable or agricultural land, decreased in 1990-1999, except the nitrogen coming from legume residues from such crops in rotation with other crops. If, in 1990, the chemical fertilizers contributed with 116.7 kg a.i./ha of arable land (74.7 kg a.i./ha of agriculture land, respectively) and the organic fertilizers with 34.6 kg a.i./ha of arable land (22.1 a.i. kg/ha of agricultural land, respectively), in 1999, these amounts decreased to 35.4 kg a.i. /ha of arable land (22.5 kg a.i./ha of agricultural land) in the case of chemical fertilizers, and to 23.5 kg a.i./ha of arable land (14.9 kg a.i./ha of agricultural land) in the case of organic fertilizers. However, it should be mentioned that there is an uncertainty in connection with the applied manure amounts. At least in the first five years of the analysed period, when most of the livestock was concentrated in great animal farms, their organic residues were only partially used as fertilizers, on limited area, around the animal farms. As a matter of fact, this was one of the big problems of such super-sized farms, where huge amounts of residues were collected over time, presenting a major risk for environment pollution. At present, due to the shortage of chemical fertilizers and the spreading of animal husbandry in smaller farms, there are signs that the organic fertilizers of this source are better managed. The application of insufficient fertilizer amounts in the last ten years determined an intensified consumption of nutrients from soil reserves and implicitly a deficient balance sheet of these nutrients. Only at the level of the vegetal production obtained in 1999, the deficit created in soils was of about 865 thou. tons a.i., of which 284 thou. Tons N, 157 thou. tons P2O5 and 424 thou. tons K2O, as shown in table 4.1.8. This deficit represents a loss of about 31 kg N, 17 kg P2O5 and 45 kg K2O per hectare of arable land and a loss of 19 kg N, 11 kg P2O5 and 29 kg K2O per hectare of agricultural land. The highest deficit is in the case of K, having in view, in a large measure, that most soils of this country are well and very well supplied with this nutrient and that also; generally, the crop response to K fertilization is moderate. The balance sheet data are in accordance with the trend in the above-presented chemical soil evolution. The only positive aspects of this negative balance of nutrients in soils are those regarding environment preservation. It is evident that, under the above-mentioned conditions, agriculture contributed in a much more reduced measure to pollute different components of environment and especially water. Also, the agricultural products obtained in this period could be labeled as “ecological” ones, having in view too the low pesticide consumption. But, going further with such a policy in agricultural crop fertilization, it is means to condemn Romania to drastical limitation of vegetal production and, implicitly, of the other economic branches connected with this, one of the more important consequences being the more and more growing dependence on imports. Also, the already observed negative trend in soil agrochemical status will be accentuated. For sure, farms in Romania will not be, even in the next future, in an economic situation able to allow application of the amounts of nutrients needed to obtain outputs comparable with those of countries with an advanced agriculture. But, a rational agricultural policy should assist farmers to be able to apply chemical fertilizers, at least, at the economically optimum rates (rates which ensure the maximum net income per hectare), as shown in table 4.1.9. For example, at the level of the 1999 agricultural year, the optimum needed amount of chemical fertilizers at country level to obtain moderate yields of the main crops was of ca 1958 thou. tons a.i., of which 999 thou. tons N, 541 thou. tons P2O5 and 418 thou. tons K2O. These amounts correspond to about 75% of the arable land, therefore, the total optimum need for arable lands would be about 2000 thou. tons a.i., of which about 260 thou. tons a.i. are to be added for vineyards and orchards. Considering that, in the next future, there will be no important changes in the crop structure and in the areas occupied by the main crops, it can be estimated an annual optimum need of chemical fertilizers of about 2260 thou. tons a.i. to obtain some moderate yields. The official prediction data for 2004 show an increase of the chemical fertilizers amounts for agriculture, estimated at about 1000 thou. tons a.i. Tables: [ 4.1.1. Mineral fertilizers used in Romania, in 1990-1999 period][ 4.1.2. Dinamics of some agricultural indices (%), in Romania, in 1990-1999][ 4.1.3. Change over time in the content of organic matter and in the status of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium supply of arable land in Romania (percentage distribution on supply classes)][ 4.1.4. Change over time in the content of organic matter and in the status of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium supply of agricultural land in Romania (percentage distribution on supply classes)][ 4.1.5. Change over time in amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium applied on arable land, of total available sources (kg/ha)][ 4.1.6. Change over time in amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium applied on agricultural land, of total available sources (kg/ha)][ 4.1.7. Change over the time in the amount of nutrient from different sources, applied per hectare (in kilograms of active ingredients)][ 4.1.8. Nutrient budgets in 1999][ 4.1.9. Optimum economic need of mineral fertilizers in agriculture of Romania in 1999, for main crops and for mean yields]Charts: [4.1.1. Mineral fertilizers used in Romania, in 1990-1999 period] [4.1.5. Change over time in amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium applied on arable land, of total available sources (kg/ha)]
4.1 > 4.4.2 Fertilizer production and costs
Foliar fertilizers Plant Power 2003 CROPMAX NUTRILEAF Plantmax Soil Plus Nutrient express (18-18-18) Nutri Vit (20-20-20) Kristalon (15-5-30) Kristalon (19-6-20) Biological fertilizers Pentasoil Basic In the current economical methodology at present used in Romania, the budget of an annual field crops farm is assessed starting from a hypothetical complex ha supposed to be cropped with the full range of field crops suitable for the respective area. The structure of such a budget is given in table 4.2.2 and the value of the main production in table 4.2.3. The amount of cash-flow of an annual field crops farm is depending on the farm size, as it is shown in table 4.2.4. It results from this table that, theoretically, in irrigated agriculture in the agroecological zone I, a farmer income may range from 233 USA $ for a farm of 1 ha up to 233 600 USA $ for a very big farm of a thou. ha. It is worth to underline that such an income is rarely, if ever, attained. Tables: [4.2.1. Cost of different fertilizer] [4.2.2. Budget of a complex hectare with annual field crops (agrocoecological zone I), year 2001] [4.2.3. Value of the main production for a complex hectare with annual field crops (irrigated, agrocoecological zone I), year 2001] [4.2.4. Value of production and of O and M (production expenses) of a complex ha with annual filed crops, depending on the exploitation size (irrigated, ahroecological zone I), year 2001] 4.2 > 4. |
|
5. Hot spots 5.0 Overview: constraints to sustainable agriculture5.1 Land-related constraints5.2 Water-related constraints5.3 Plant Nutrition-related constraints5.4 Other constraints5. > top |
|
|
5.0. Overwiew The main hotspots are represented by land degradation, drought or waterlogging, humus and nutrients depletion, salinisation and sodication and soil pollution. 5.0 > 5.5.1. Land-related constraints to sustainable agriculture
Problem soils represent those soils that can not be cropped without special improvement measures, soils that need special technologies or that are too fragile to support long lasting agricultural intensive use without special care to prevent their degradation. The main problem soils of Romania are presented in table 5.1.1. Map 5.1.1 depicts the geographic distribution of human induced soil degradation. A short description of the different kinds of degradation is given below. Dystrification is reported only in limited area of the Danube Delta, where sulfide rich soils were drained and sulfides oxidized. The neutral pH in undrained state becomes very acid (3 - 4) after the soil has been drained. Dystrification originating from SO2 and Nitrogen oxides fall-out is confined to small areas around fertilizer factories. Compaction and crusting occur on ca. 3 586 thou. ha - 15.3 percent of the total country arable area. Compaction is caused mainly by the overdimensioned weight and/or by the too frequent use of machinery or by performing fieldwork at improper soil moisture contents (the arable area per tractor is of about 57 ha). Crusting commonly occurs on silty and low humus content soils, degraded topsoil structure and scarce vegetal cover in seasons with high-energy rains, allowing maximum splash of raindrops. There are no currently available data concerning change over time of these degradation types, but one suppose that they diminished in the last ten years when the use of animals (oxen, horses) for tillage and harvesting works increased. The decrease of yield because of human-induced soil compaction is averaged for the whole country at 5 percent, but in extreme cases it may reach 50 percent. Water erosion is present on 6300 thou. ha - 26.4 percent of the total country arable area, to which 702 thou. ha - 3 percent of the total countryarable area with terrain deformation (gully or mass movement) has to be added. The specific soil loss from agricultural land trough water erosion ranges between 3.2 to 41.5 t/ha/year, the nation-wide average being of 16.28 t/ha/year, while the admissible economic limit is 4 to 6 to/ha/year. The total amount of soil loss in Romania by water erosion is about 126 mill. t/year. Although there are no currently data available, the amount of soil removed by water increased due to the incorrect implementation of Land law (Law no. 18/1991) when on sloping lands the agricultural parcels were oriented up hill - down hill, frequently across the existing anti-erosional terraces. At the same time, new land area affected by water erosion is probably going down as some areas with cropland in hilly regions were abandoned since 1990. The humus loss caused by the removal of the topsoil ranges between 45 and 90 percent of the total organic matter pool. At the country level the total humus loss amount to ca 0.5 mill. t/year. No currently available data exist about the losses of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Concerning the impact on agricultural productivity of water erosion a rough estimation of the decrease of yields level is given in table 5.1.2. The observable wind erosion affects sandy soils on 378 thou. ha - ca. 1.6 percent of the total country area. No currently data concerning the amount of soil removed by wind erosion are available. The area eroded by wind may show a slight increase as consequence of intense deforestation made in the last ten years on sandy soils situated in the dry-warm climatic zone of the country. As concerns the effects of wind erosion no currently data are available. Map 5.1.2 presents the geographic distribution of soil erosion in Romania. Although prime land represents about 39 percent (3.7 mill. ha) of the arable land (suitability lass I and II), in Romania they are not legally recognized yet. In the last ten years large areas from these lands have been given other uses than agriculture. Unfortunately, no data about their encroachment are currently available. They are protected in the general frame of the soil resources laws. Agricultural land The major part of the agricultural land in Romania is private owned (ca 82 percent) and the State land policy encourages a complete privatization of agricultural land tenancy, even if the present-day state-owned land will still remain as such. Forest land At the time being, most part of forestland belongs to the forest State administration: ca 95 percent (6 359 thou. ha). The private forests and other holders represent about 5 percent (307 thou. ha). The State policy is to protect the forestry fund independently of the type of property. The retrocession of the formely private forest land is still under way. The main conflict are between the agricultural land use and land use conversion to industry, trade, traffic infrastructure development (roads, highway), urban and rural sprawl, recreation sites development, biodiversity protection, a.o.). In the last ten years, the area occupied by buildings and courtyards increased with 4 percent and those of grassland with 10 percent. The area with arable land and permanent crops decreased with 6 percent. The effect of industrialization on land use is generally negative. In the second half of the XX century, several hundred thou. ha of agricultural land have been converted to other uses (industrial, urban, recreational, etc.); about 33 thou. ha have been destroyed by surface mining or covered by industrial or domestic wastes. Maps: [5.1.1. Romania – Human induced soil degradation] [5.1.2. Romania - Soil Erosion] Tables: [5.1.1. The main problem soils in Romania] [5.1.2. Losses of cereal yields as depending on the thickness of the soil removed by water erosion] 5.1 > 5. 5.2 Water-related constraints to sustainable agriculture
Waterlogging induced by human activity has been a serious problem within the irrigated area of the Romanian Danube Plain, in the 8th - 9th decades of the XX century. It resulted from the rising of ground water table as consequence of high loss of irrigation water from unlined canals, to which overlapped a range of rainy years. Nowadays this phenomenon disappeared: the irrigation being drastically reduced and climatically there is a droughty period. Such conflicts occur during of long-lasting climatic drought periods (e.g., 1998-2000) between industrial, domestic and agricultural sectors. No currently information are available. 5.2 > 5. 5.3 Plant Nutrition-related constraints to sustainable agriculture
5.3 > 5.5.4 Other constraints to sustainable agriculture
This soil property is mostly a pedogenic one, although one believes that it has been enhanced through inadequate fertilization. It affects 3.4 mill. ha (34.3 percent of arable lands). A net increase in salt content has been recorded on small areas within some irrigated and embanked and drained lands. Soil pollution affects 900 thou. ha from which 200 thou. ha are severely polluted. Very negative effect on soil productivity result from pollution with oil and salty water (50 thou. ha) and with heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd) identified in areas as Baia Mare, Zlatna and Copsa Mica. Over 40 percent of the arable area of Romania are subject to drought within 40-65 percent of years and another 20 percent with a frequency of 10-40 percent of years. Severe drought phenomena show a repeatability of 15-25 years. Area affected by desertification covers more that 4 mill. ha, of which 72 percent agricultural lands and 8 percent forestlands. In Romania there are 492 protected areas totaling 1 141 thou. ha (4.8 percent of the country area) among which The Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve and 12 national parks (e.g., Rodna, Retezat, Piatra Craiului, Bucegi, a.o.) are the most important. Genetic erosion concerns mainly the farmlands where the native vegetation and habitats have been replaced by agricultural crops. Severe biodiversity depletion has been induced by converting of some 400 thou. ha of wetlands to arable lands in the Danube river Flood Plain and by building dams for water reservoirs on inland rivers courses (e.g. Olt, Siret, a. o.). A National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan have been issued and are underway to be implemented. 5.4 > 5. |
|
|
|
6. Bright spots 6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation6.1 Land-related response indicators6.2 Water-related response indicators6.3 Plant Nutrition-related response indicators6. > top |
|
|
6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation Improvement of land and water resource use by developing a better management as a basis for sustainable agriculture, environment protection and biodiversity conservation. 6.0 > 6.6.1 Land-related response indicators
From the total agricultural land resources - 14.8 mill. ha, ca. 3.7 mill. Ha are arable land of good and very good quality. If intensively cropped, this area could be the basis (ca 0.17 ha per capita) for ensuring the food security of the country population and to allow conversion of the remaining area of arable land (ca. 5.6 mill. ha) to non-arable uses, e.g., grassland or forestland (those strongly degraded). One estimates that at least 1.5 mill. ha of agricultural land have to be afforested (reafforested). The State policy aims to enforce private property, or at least privat tenancy, as the dominant sector, along with a minor sector of public property. The land allocation is made according to Land Law no. 18/1990 and to its subsequent regularization. No special rules exist concerning the use of agricultural lands. The local administration, both at county level and at communal level, has attributes to watch for a correct resources management as far as this does not interfere with the property right. Only about 3 percent of the agricultural production systems in Romania are based on high input practices, 14 percent on low-input practices and 83 percent rely on survival practices practically without any input and with low crop rotation use. Only the first group is successful. Although the Government promotes the ecological alternatives, the process of monitoring development of sustainable agriculture systems is still emerging. There are several legal provisions for land care in the frame of the Land Law, in the Cadaster Law, the Land Reclamation Law and the Land Leasing Law. A special Soil Protection Law (Land care) is under preparation by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Forestry). According currently available information, no kind of land care program has not been elaborated until now. The soil conservation measures (environmental) are practiced by only one State farm; conservation tillage (on sandy soils) by 30 000 private (individual and family association) and State farms; cropping on (slightly) salt-affected soils by ca. 350 private and State farms. In Romania there are three Agricultural Research Stations concerning soil conservation/reclamation: Perieni-Vaslui for erosion control and eroded soil rehabilitation; Braila for salinity control and saline/sodic soil reclamation; Dabuleni-Dolj for sandy soil cropping and reclamation. No farmer participate to soil conservation and other land improvement technologies. 6.1 > 6. 6.2 Water-related response indicators
Drainage, mainly open drainage, is developed especially in the Danube river Flood Plain and in some parts of the low-lying areas of the western part of the country. Ditch maintenance is performed always when exploitation problems occur. The over-watering is discouraged by existing exploitation rules. On-farm ponds practice is very limited in Romania, e.g., to areas with clayey, impermeable soils or on some temporarily water courses. Salt tolerant crops have a limited use and are represented mostly by fodder crops. The rice is the only water intensive crop, but its area decreased drastically since 1990. The price of irrigation water and energy is reviewed annually according to the agricultural policy of the Government. The State supports part of the cost of the pumping of irrigation water and its flow to the borders of the agricultural fields. The holder has to pay only the water distribution to crops (the watering itself). 6.2 > 6. 6.3 Plant Nutrition-related response indicators See: 4.1, 4.2.6.3 > 6. |
|
7. Challenges and viewpoints |
|
|
The policy objectives of the Romanian agriculture are to: Achieving national food security. Promoting a sustainable agriculture, and increasing the agricultural productivity and output. Creating conditions and acquiring the norms to join the European Union Community. Protecting and preserving the agrienvironment quality and biodiversity. Improving agricultural products quality to become competitive for export. The strategies for attaining the above objectives with respect to the cropping sector and to conservation of the natural resources base are as follows:
7. > top |
|
8. References and related internet links 8.1 References8.2 Internet related links8.3 Authors8. > top |
|
|
FAO – Production - FAO Yearbook vol. 53, 1999. Georgescu Fl. - Cartea alba a preluarii guvernarii in luna decembrie 2000 (White Book of taking Government Power in December 2000), Monitorul Oficial – Bucuresti, 2001. IUCN, WCU - Agenda 21: Earth’s Action Plan, Oceana Publications Inc. New York-London-Rome, 1993. Ministry of Agriculture and Food - Strategia Agriculturii Romanesti 2000-2012 (Strategy of the Romanian Agriculture 2000-2012), 1999. Malita M., Georgescu C. (editors) - Romania 2020 (Romania 2020), Ed. Compress, 1998. Ministry of Waters, Forests and Agricultural Environment Protection - The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for Romania, 1996. Ministry of Waters, Forests and Agricultural Environment Protection - Environment Protection Strategy of Romania, 1996. Ministry of Waters, Forests and Agricultural Environment Protection - The National Strategy and Action Program to Combating Desertification, Land Degradation and Drought in Romania , 1999. Ministry of Waters and Environment Protection – Report on Environment Quality in Romania (2000), 2001. UNDP, UNEP, WB - World Resources 2000-2001. People and Ecosystems, World Resources Institute (WRI) Washington D.C., 2000. Vajdea V., (co-ordinator) - Corine Land Cover Romania Geological Institute, Bucharest, 1996. Research Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry - Romanian Soil Data Base - in European Soil Database (1994), 1996. X X X - Geografia Romaniei (Romania’s Geography), Ed. Acad. Romane, Bucharest, 1983. X X X - Romanian Statistical Yearbook, 1989 - 2000. 8.1 > 8.
8.2 > 8. Research Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry – RISSA, Bucharest Prof. Dr. Mihai Dumitru – General Director Dr. Catalin CRISTIAN Simota– Scientific Director Authors Dr. Ioan Munteanu – RISSA; coordinator of the work and chapters: Dr. Letitia Tiganas – RISSA; chapters: 4.1; 4.2.Dr. Virgil Vlad – RISSA; chapter: 8.2.Dr. Anton Geicu – National Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology (NIMH); chapter: 1.3.Dr. Sorin Mihaita Teodor – NIMH; chapter: 3.1.Dr. Nicolae Geambasu – Romanian Forest Research and Management Institute (RFRMI); chapters: 2.6; 2.8.Dr. Dan Horia Catana – Agrarian Economy Institute (AEI); chapters: 1.2; 2.8; 2.10; 3.2; 4.2.Dr. Dan Ioan Reveica – AEI; chapters: 1.2; 2.8.Digital Processing Sorina Iustina Dumitru – RISSA Victoria Mocanu – RISSA HTML Alin Dragos Cretu – RISSA Gabriel Moraru – RISSA 8.3 > 8. |
|
last updated: 27 November, 2001 |
|
Romania 
